Welcome to the final section of the course. After reading and thinking about the Food-Energy-Water Nexus, we will now circle back to look at some ideas from the beginning of the course in more detail. At the start of the course, we read about global environmental change and the planetary boundaries. Over the coming weeks, we will look at three of the key earth systems for which we read about in more detail: Biodiversity loss, land use change, and climate change. This week, we will examine biodiversity. We will examine what biodiversity is, why it is important, and some of the current threats to biodiversity. The reading will examine one way humans have tried to protect biodiversity: parks. We will also read about how indigenous people around the world protect a large about of the remaining intact ecosystems. You should by now be getting used to Human - Environment Geography approaches to these issues and be able to guess at what these readings might say about, for example, justice. Finally, the case study presented in this week’s film, will examine how attempts to protect biodiversity can impact the economy of indigenous people.

Consider these questions as you go through the material for this week as well as when completing your assignment:

• What are the main drivers of biodiversity loss?
• Who is responsible for biodiversity conservation? What are the reasons we should protect biodiversity?
• Do the narratives and discourses you see in the media, and even academic publications, line up with the drivers of biodiversity loss? Why / why not?
• What are the social, economic and justice implications of different strategies to protect biodiversity (such as parks)?

Week 10 Checklist

Note: Please refer to the Calendar in Canvas for specific time frames and due dates.

What is Biodiversity?

Biodiversity is a measure of variation and richness of living organisms at a particular scale. This can include the diversity of ecosystems, species, or genes in a given system or place. Ecosystem biodiversity refers to Earth’s different ecosystems, such as tropical rain forest, coral reefs, and deserts. Species biodiversity refers to the number of different species within a given ecosystem. Genetic biodiversity is the amount of genetic variation within a single species. Biodiversity is measured in terms of richness and evenness. Species richness is simply a count of the number of different species in a given environment and does not consider population size or species distribution. Species evenness considers the rarety of a given species in a given ecosystem.

Figure 10.1: A diversity of Nudibranchs sea slugs (thought to be a good indicator of climate change)

Credit: Bryce, Clay. "Cratena Lineata." Australian Geographic [1]. September 12, 2017.

Drivers of Biodiversity Loss

Biodiversity is on the decline globally because of human actions. In our earlier reading Rockstrom and colleagues (2009) noted "Species extinction is a natural process, and would occur without human actions. However, biodiversity loss in the Anthropocene has accelerated massively. Species are becoming extinct at a rate that has not been seen since the last global mass-extinction event. Today, the rate of extinction of species is estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times more than what could be considered natural". They classified biodiversity loss as the planetary boundary that was already farthest outside of "safe" levels, driven primarily by changes in land use (Rockstrom et al. 2009).

The drivers of extinction and biodiversity loss are, of course, different for different groups of organisms and in different systems. While many species are threatened by habitat loss, others such as large mammals in the tropics by poaching for meat or high value products like ivory, horn, or scale (Ripple et al. 2016), while still others are threatened by climate change. Some species are vulnerable due to low genetic diversity caused by historical events that whipped out the majority of a population, leaving a reduced genetic pool (such as the African Cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus). For many species, a combination of multiple factors are to blame.

One example of biodiversity loss, that has reserved a lot of media attention, is the decline in giraffe populations [2]. Over the last 30 years, the population of wild giraffes has decreased by 37%. This decline in the giraffe population is largely due to a combination of habitat loss, poaching, and civil unrest in Africa. Increasing farm lands have led to habit fragmentation within giraffes’ native range. Giraffes are also being hunted for their meat. Giraffe populations have remained stable on game parks in South Africa that sponsor ecotourism. If other African countries can manage their giraffe populations as successfully as South Africa, giraffes have good chance of surviving.

Another case that has recently gotten a lot of media attention [3], is the seizure of 9 tons of pangolin scales and 1000 elephant tusks in Hong Kong. Pangolins are an anteater like mammal that will roll up into a ball when threatened. Pangolins are in high demand on both the Chinese and Vietnamese black markets because their scales are thought to have various medicinal properties. Pangolin scales are made from keratin (the same material that is in your finger nails) and have no known medicinal properties. There are eight species of pangolin all of which are endangered and protected under international trafficking laws. In Hong Kong, the smuggling of illegal wildlife products can result in ten years in prison and fines not to exceeded $1.3 million dollars. However, high demand for pangolin scales is prompting the illegal trafficking of thousands of pangolins.

Figure 10.2: A baby pangolin riding on the back of its mother in an Indonesian zoo (May 2019)

Credit: Lisawati, Firdia. Associated Press Photo. June 19, 2014.

The Giraffe and Pangolin are not alone: several recent reports have come out highlighting the staggering declines in both the number of individual animals on the planet and the loss of species (biodiversity). A WWF report first released in 2016 reported a staggering reduction of vertebrate animal populations by over 60% since the 1970s [4]. While this number is for the number of individual animals, as populations decline, species are at greater risk of extinction. The report noted that this decline is driven by habit loss, pollution, over harvesting, climate change and invasive species (Carrington 2018). The sixth mass extinction also applies to insects [5]. Insect numbers are rapidly decreasing in Europe and across the world with one German nature preserve showing a 76% decrease in flying insects. This decrease in insect populations is likely due to a combination of climate change, pesticide usage, and habitat loss (Guarino 2017). The decrease in insect populations is filtering up the food chain and resulting decreases insect eating lizards, frogs and birds as well. Birds are suffering too [6], with many reportedly driven to extinction by large scale agricultural production (for food and fuel) and associated drivers. Marine species [7] and coral [8] are well documented to be at extreme risk from climate change.

Figure 10.3: The recent decline in vertebrate animals (Carrington 2018).

Credit: Carrington, Damian. "Living Planet index, WWF/ZSL." The Guardian. October 29, 2018.

For an example of the threat an invasive species can cause towards regional biodiversity watch this PBS video.

Narratives about Biodiversity Loss

Human-Environment Geographers spend a lot of thinking about the way the drivers or causes of Biodiversity are portrayed. The WWF report that reported the 60% reduction of vertebrate animal populations since the 1970s [4] has been criticized for tiptoeing around the core drivers of this change - mass production and consumption, especially of food. Geographers have criticized nature documentaries, including excellent and respected productions such as BBC Earth for failing to show the causes of biodiversity loss: instead painting humans (and viewers) as helpless bystanders watching extinction take place but unable to change natures fate. A famous article by Rod Neumann [10] (2004) "Moral and discursive geographies in the war for biodiversity in Africa" lays out the way a National Geographic article portrays White hunters are courageous and committed to the conservation of nature (posed in a dignified way in photos, named in the photo caption) while African hunters are portrayed as wasteful, careless and uneducated about the importance of biodiversity (and not named in photo captions). His article calls to attention the ethical issues around the fact that in many African countries anti-poaching gauds have the right to shoot suspected poachers on sight (thereby depriving them of the right to a trial and punishment relative to the crime). He also points out the complicated morals of placing the life of an elephant above that of a human being. Interestingly, a 2019 article by Buzzfeed [11] caused a massive scandal by reporting that WWF for having funded forest gauds who committed violent crime while working to protect biodiversity. As you move through the remainder of the course pay attention to the discourses you see on each of our assigned topics. Think about what gets left out and why.

Why is Biodiversity important?

What are the reasons we should protect biodiversity? The reasons we should protect biodiversity, and which ones get used most often are also studied by Geographers (Cronon 1996). Do humans have a moral responsibility to protect nature? Or should we protected it because of the many ways it is essential to our survival and well-being? The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment laid out the many ways biodiversity supports human well-being, calling these functions "Ecosystem Services". An example of these:

“Thirty-five percent [12] of the world’s plant crops require pollination by bees, wasps and other animals. And arthropods are more than just pollinators. They’re the planet’s wee custodians, toiling away in unnoticed or avoided corners. They chew up rotting wood and eat carrion. “And none of us want to have more carcasses around,” Schowalter said. Wild insects provide $57 billion worth of six-legged labor in the United States each year, according to a 2006 estimate.” (Guarano 2017).

Additional ecosystems ecological services include: Forests acting as a carbon sink to absorb CO₂, coral reefs providing breeding grounds for the fish consumed by local fishermen, and water purification by wetlands. High biodiversity also holds the promise of new medicines and technological innovation. Many of our medicines are based on chemicals produced by plants. Japanese bullet trains were inspired but the shaped of the bills of king fishers (a species of bird) to avoid making loud booms when the exit tunnels. Finally, biodiversity has value that many people enjoy when they engage in recreational activities, such as camping.

Here we have looked at some of the drivers of biodiversity loss. You should be able to link these to many of the past weeks of material in the course. You reading this week will examine strategies to protect biodiversity. As you go through these, think about who is responsible for biodiversity loss, who is responsible for th protection of biodiversity and who bears the burden.

References

Carrington, D. (2018, Oct 29). Humanity Has Wiped Out 60% of Animal Populations Since 1970, Report Finds. The Guardian, Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/30/humanity-wiped-out-animals-since-1970-major-report-finds [4]

Cronon, W. (Ed.). (1996). Uncommon ground: Rethinking the human place in nature. WW Norton & Company.

Guarino, B. (2018, Oct 15). ‘Hyperalarming’ Study Shows Massive Insect Loss. The Washington Post. Retrieved From. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/10/18/this-is-very-alarming-flying-insects-vanish-from-nature-preserves/?utm_term=.d857c1ba3ee8 [13]

May, T. (2019, Feb 1). 9 Tons of Pangolin Scales Are Seized in Hong Kong. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/01/world/asia/pangolin-smuggling-hong-kong.html [3]

McGrath, M. (2016, Dec 8). Giraffes Facing ‘Silent Extinction’ as Population Plunges. The British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-38240760 [2]

Neumann, R. P. (2004). Moral and discursive geographies in the war for biodiversity in Africa. Political Geography, 23(7), 813-837.

Ripple et al. (2016). Bushmeat hunting and extinction risk to the world’s mammals. Royal Society Open Science, 3(10).

Agricultural Impacts on the Biodiversity:

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As you will see in this week's reading, food production is a key driver of Biodiversity Loss globally. A paper by Campbell et al. ((2017) estimated the impact of agriculture production on the planetary boundaries. They suggest that agriculture is responsible for 80% of human impact on land use change, 84% for freshwater use, 90% of biochemical flow and 80% of genetic biodiversity loss. 

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Fig. 1. The status of the nine planetary boundaries (PBs; green, yellow, red) overlaid with our estimate of agriculture’s role in that status. PBs based on Steffen et al. (2015), with modification for freshwater from below boundary (safe) into a zone of uncertainty (Gerten et al. 2013, Jaramillo and Destouni 2015a), and an estimate for functional diversity based on Newbold et al. (2016).

THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURE SHOWN WITH BLACK SPOTTED HIGHLIGHTING.

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Pesticides:

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We have known of the potential risks of pesticides used in agriculture since the publication of Rachel Carson’s 1962 book, Silent Spring. In her book, Carson details the extensive harm the pesticide DDT poses to humans and non-humans alike; after DDT has been sprayed, it persists in the environment, circulating through soil, water, bodies, and food. Carson’s work challenged industry and government groups for promoting DDT spraying programs despite mounting evidence of its deleterious effects. Her analysis, expanded on by many scholars in the 50 years since the publication of Silent Spring, draws strong connections between environmental harms and political and economic policies, programs, and institutional structure. Many consider Carson’s book to be a major turning point in environmental politics in the United States, laying the ground work for the environmental movement in the United States and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Should you choose to read this excerpt, pay attention to her description of daily interactions with chemicals and her analysis of government and industry actions as her insights relate back to what we covered for Environmental Justice in Lesson 4.

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Optional Readings:

Since the publication of Rachel Carson's book, the use of pesticides in developed countries has become much more highly regulated (check the WHO map, and think about if the regulations are equally cautious in developing countries?). While few of us today are careless when applying pesticides to our lawns (if we do at all), and many of you may have never even heard of moth prevention treatments (used by your grandma to keep moths from eating holes in woolen clothing and blankets), there are new and evolving risks that we are exposed to. For example, many carpets are sprayed with fire retardants that are now emerging as a potential health risk. And the chemical used to make your stylish new jacket waterproof are being questioned and linked to health risks.

UN experts denounce 'myth' pesticides are necessary to feed the world - The Guardian [15]

World Health Organization's page on Agri-chemicals [16]

Above are links to two sources which highlight the dangers associated with agricultural pesticide use. The first link is to an article by The Guardian which provides a synopsis of the UN Human Rights Council report condemning major manufacturing corporations for distributing misleading information on pesticides use. Then the second link from the World Health Organization's page on Agri-chemicals provides a map showing the number of chemical poisoning in each country around the world. When exploring these pages, consider where your own food comes from and how your own consumptive patterns might be implicated in these exposures.

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References:

Campbell, B. M., Beare, D. J., Bennett, E. M., Hall-Spencer, J. M., Ingram, J. S. I., Jaramillo, F., . . . Shindell, D. (2017). Agriculture production as a major driver of the Earth system exceeding planetary boundaries. Ecology and Society, 22(4).

Required Reading:

This week used to inclide a signficiant amount of accademic reading, but as we near the end of the course it is important that you learn where to find up-to-date information about the planetary boundriaes and understand how United Nations bodies and NGOs are working to tackel Biodiversity Loss and other earth systems changes.

Where to look for up-to-date information:

• Various UN organizations deal with Biodiversty Loss and produce reports or policy targets to assess and address Biodiversity Loss. These include the CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity [17]), the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [18]) and UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme [19]).
• The IPBES [20] (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services) is an independent intergovernmental body established by a collection of countries  (through UN processes) "to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, long-term human well-being and sustainable development". (You may have heard of the IPCC [21](Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) which is a simialr body, but tasked with dealing with climate change). The IPBES 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services [22] provides an excellent and detailed look at Biodiversity Loss, drivers of biodiversity loss and impacts on ecosystem services. You are encoruaged to check out the forthcoming Thematic assessment of the underlying causes of biodiversity loss and the determinants of transformative change and options for achieving the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity [23]. There is a draft [24]available for the public, have a look and see how many of the themes we have covered in this course you see in it?
• Many global NGOs are also making really important contributions to assessing Biodiversoty Loss and changing narratives to focus on the underlying causes of biodiversity loss rather than the proximate ones. The WWF's (World Wide Fund for Nature [25]) Living Planet Report provides a regularily updated record of global Biodiversity Loss. Please check out the website [26] before moving on the reading the report as one of your readings

WWF (2024) Living Planet Report 2024 – A System in Peril. WWF, Gland, Switzerland.

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Garnett, S. T., Burgess, N. D., Fa, J. E., Fernández-Llamazares, Á., Molnár, Z., Robinson, C. J., ... & Collier, N. F. (2018). A spatial overview of the global importance of Indigenous lands for conservation. Nature Sustainability, 1(7), 369.

This article examines the roles indigenous people play in managing global biodiversity through supervising their own lands. The article draws on previous literature to determine the spatial extent of indigenous lands and what portion of these lands are in protected areas. The article explains how much of the word’s remaining natural lands are in the domain of indigenous people. The authors argue for a bottom up an approach for safeguarding biodiversity, which would allow indigenous people agency in determining their own land management. The article also cautions against forcing indigenous people into conservation practices that run counter to their cultural heritage.

NOTE: Links to the readings are located in the module in Canvas.