Welcome to Lesson 5! In this lesson, you will become familiar with all aspects of operating a UAS, starting with the obstacles in the face of the UAS and its operations and moving to subjects like guidelines to UAS operations, definition of airspace, launch and recovery, line of sight (LOS) operation, beyond line of sight (BLOS) operation, and personnel qualifications. All the topics mentioned above are crucial to any individual involved in operating a UAS, especially here in the United States. I would like to emphasize the topic of understanding the national airspace (NAS) and the rules surrounding the operation of an aircraft in each of its classes. In this lesson, you will be asked to express your opinion on the newly released FAA roadmap for integrating the UAS in the NAS.

Lesson Objectives

At the successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• understand guidelines for operating a UAS;
• describe the different classes of airspace;
• understand the different modes of operating a UAS (LOS versus BLOS);
• describe the UAS personnel qualifications.

Lesson Readings

• Section 5.1 of textbook 1: Barnhart, et al., Introduction to Unmanned Aircraft Systems.
• TRB2013 Paper presentation slides: "Addressing the Operational and Technical UAS Airspace Integration Challenges [1]".
• Review PART 107 [2] “Operation and Certification of Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems”.
• Review more details on the test site program. [3]
• Review the FAA document [4]about the test sites program and the FAA page [5] on it.
• Review the TRB 2013 presentation "Unmanned Aircraft System Policy and Regulatory Environment [6]".
• Read the article "What You Need to Know to Legally Operate Your Drone Under New FAA Regulation [7]".
• Read sections 5.3, 5.6, and 5.7 of chapter 5 in textbook 1: Barnhart, et al., Introduction to Unmanned Aircraft Systems.
• Review materials on the High Adventure website. [8]
• Review section 3 of the materials on the Federation of American Scientists [9] website.
• Review section 16 of the document “Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Operational Approval” [10] .

Lesson Activities

• Watch the hearing in the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation on "Unmanned Aircraft Systems: Innovation, Integration, Successes, and Challenges [11]”.
• Complete the Lesson 5 Quiz.
• Participate in the FAA Roadmap Discussion Forum.
• Submit your final project idea/proposal in the Final Project Proposal drop box.
• Submit your "CONOP and Risk Assessment" assignment report.

In the following sections, you will become familiar with the FAA regulations that restrict the operation of the UAS in the national airspace, especially for commercial use. Whether we all agree with it or not, the reasons behind the FAA restrictions are due to one or more of the following:

1. As was mentioned earlier in the previous lessons, the NAS is already congested with manned aircraft, and adding more traffic caused by the unmanned system may compromise the safety of the NAS. This does not seem to be a valid argument, as the UAS will eventually be integrated into the NAS and rules and procedures need to be in place so the safety of the NAS does not become compromised. The FAA sooner or later needs to deal with integration issues.
2. For a long time, most utilization of UASs was made for military purposes. During combat situations, the military bends the rules surrounding UAS operations. In other words, the military use of UASs is not as strongly restricted by FAA regulations as are civilian uses of UAS. The FAA was not under any pressure from the civil community demanding the necessary measure for the integration of the UAS into the NAS. This was true until 2012, when the FAA was mandated by the White House to do something about such integration by the year 2015. FAA did not issue its first UAS integration rules until June 2016.
3. Most civil applications of UASs are using less expensive models that lack the sophistication that was built into the military version of the UAS. Such fact gave the FAA a reason to be concerned about the reliability and safety of these small UASs. Besides the cost factor, the size and weight of the payload in most civilian UASs is very limited and prohibits carrying onboard sophisticated communications systems such as the one needed to ensure successful detect-and-avoid mechanism. The FAA stated in their road map document of 2013, which you reviewed in the "Sensors Characteristics" section of lesson 4, “To gain full access to the NAS, UAS need to be able to bridge the gap from existing systems requiring accommodations to future systems that are able to obtain a standard airworthiness certificate.” Such a statement reflects how the FAA feels about the current state of UAS technologies.
4. Resistance to change by some FAA employees who are faced with the UAS integration, which is perhaps the most disruptive technology in the history of aviation. This is the case with most of the new technologies introduced to users of conventional technologies.
5. Concerns over privacy issues. The UAS can be flown very low and the high definition imagery from an imaging sensor may raise privacy concerns.

I would like to add here that even though the FAA restricted the use and operation of UASs in U.S. airspace, there are growing feelings, by consumers who have found useful uses for UASs, about breaking the FAA rules and flying UASs without a COA or the special airworthiness certificate. Before the FAA changed its pace in recent years in dealing with UAS issues, people were frustrated with the sluggish pace of progress by the FAA to integrate the UAS into the NAS. To understand such "unlawful" use of the UAS, read the following article:

• FAA Says Commercial Drone Operations Are Illegal… Public Says So What? [12]

Prior to August 29, 2016, where the latest FAA regulations in regard to UAS operation went into effect, the FAA document number N 8900.227 entitled “National policy: The Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Operational Approval” is used to describe the regulation surrounding the UAS operation in the United States. The policy carefully explains all aspects of UAS operation, from the airworthiness of the aircraft to the operator training and risk mitigation. Getting familiar with these regulations was necessary for anyone who was planning to own or operate a UAS. The document was temporarily issued until the future regulations that proposed in the FAA roadmap replaces what the above document mandated. It took the FAA few years to amend its regulations to allow the legal operation of small unmanned aircraft systems in the National Airspace System. The new rules were published in the Federal Register (Vol. 81 Number 124 Part II [13]) on June 28, 2016 and it went into effect on August 29, 2016. The new rules were added as a new part 107 to Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) to allow for routine civil operation of small UAS in the NAS and to provide safety rules for those operations. The new rules, which are publicly known as PART 107, become the latest official policy to govern the commercial operation of small UAS in the National Airspace System (NAS). The article "What You Need to Know to Legally Operate Your Drone Under New FAA Regulation [7]" briefly describes the new rules, and it is a good read for anyone that is trying to understand PART 107.

Prior to the issuing of PART 107, the FAA achieved one of its most important milestones, which is the selection of the 6 sites for the "UAS Test Site Program." The 6 sites selection represented the first serious step by the FAA toward the integration of the UAS into the NAS. Among tens of applicants, the FAA On December 30, 2013 announced the selection of the following 6 agencies to operate UAS test sites as it is quoted below:

1. University of Alaska. The University of Alaska proposal contained a diverse set of test site range locations in seven climatic zones, as well as geographic diversity with test site range locations in Hawaii and Oregon. The research plan includes the development of a set of standards for unmanned aircraft categories, state monitoring and navigation. Alaska also plans to work on safety standards for UAS operations.
2. State of Nevada. Nevada’s project objectives concentrate on UAS standards and operations, as well as operator standards and certification requirements. The applicant’s research will also include a concentrated look at how air traffic control procedures will evolve with the introduction of UAS into the civil environment and how these aircraft will be integrated with NextGen. Nevada’s selection contributes to geographic and climatic diversity.
3. New York’s Griffiss International Airport. Griffiss International plans to work on developing test and evaluation as well as verification and validation processes under FAA safety oversight. The applicant also plans to focus its research on sense and avoid capabilities for UAS, and its sites will aid in researching the complexities of integrating UAS into the congested, northeast airspace.
4. North Dakota Department of Commerce. North Dakota plans to develop UAS airworthiness essential data and validate high reliability link technology. This applicant will also conduct human factors research. North Dakota’s application was the only one to offer a test range in the Temperate (continental) climate zone and included a variety of different airspace, which will benefit multiple users.
5. Texas A&M University – Corpus Christi. Texas A&M plans to develop system safety requirements for UAS vehicles and operations, with a goal of protocols and procedures for airworthiness testing. The selection of Texas A&M contributes to geographic and climactic diversity.
6. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech). Virginia Tech plans to conduct UAS failure mode testing and identify and evaluate operational and technical risks areas. This proposal includes test site range locations in both Virginia and New Jersey.

In totality, these six test applications achieve cross-country geographic and climatic diversity and help the FAA meet its UAS research goals of System Safety & Data Gathering, Aircraft Certification, Command & Control Link Issues, Control Station Layout & Certification, Ground & Airborne Sense & Avoid, and Environmental Impacts.

Each test site operator manages the use and scheduling of the test site in a way that it gives access to parties interested in using the site. The FAA’s role is to ensure that each operator sets up a safe testing environment and to provide oversight that ensures each site operates under strict safety standards.

In order to understand the UAS operations within the United States, you will need to be familiar with the way the NAS is classified and managed. Figure 5.1 schematically illustrates the different classes of the NAS, while table 5.1 provides details on the different classes of the NAS.  Each class has its own rules and restrictions. The Wikipedia web site contains good details on the US national airspace classes [15].  The materials given in the assignment will provide you with additional details about the NAS classes.

Figure 5.1: Classes of the National Air Space

Source: FAA document: "Integration of Unmanned Aircraft Systems into the National Airspace System: Concept of Operations,” v2, 2012

In most cases, operating a UAS requires employment of similar logistics as those needed for manned aircraft. Large UASs such as the Northrop Grumman’s Global Hawk call for operation requirements similar to those needed to fly a large Boeing aircraft. The Global Hawk, which is the size of a Boeing 737, requires runways for takeoff and landing. It can fly over 60,000 feet, cruise at 310 knots, and has an endurance of 36 hours. On the other hand, small UASs weigh only a few pounds and do not need airports or runways for takeoff and landing. Different UAS sizes and sophistication also require different personnel skills and requirements.

Launch and Recovery

There are many ways in which a UAV can be launched, some of which are very complex while others are as simple as a hand toss into the air. Some UASs, such as target drones, are air-launched from a fixed wing aircraft. Usually, large UASs are equipped with wheels for takeoff and landing and do not need special equipment, while smaller UASs needs a variety of launch and recovery strategies depending on the complexity of the system. Many small and medium size UAS launch systems have a requirement to be mobile, or in other words, to be mounted on a truck or a trailer. Such mobile launchers fall within one of the following types:

1. Rail Launchers
2. Pneumatic Launchers
3. Hydraulic/Pneumatic Launchers

For more details on these launchers, refer to chapter 17 of the supplemental textbook Introduction to UAV Systems, 4th edition.

Line of Sight (LOS) Operation

Line-of-sight (LOS) operation refers to operating the UAS through direct radio waves. The LOS link provides command and control uplink and product downlink while the UAS operates within a certain distance from the GCS. The link is used to launch and recover the aircraft and perform data acquisition according to the type of payload mission of the system. In the United States, civilian operations are usually conducted on 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz, and 5.8 GHz.

Beyond Line of Sight (BLOS) Operation

Beyond Line-of-sight (BLOS) operation refers to operating the UAS through satellite communications or using a relay vehicle such as another aircraft. The recent advancements in SwiftBroadband service and hardware, including smaller, lighter avionics that don’t compromise on performance or data capacity, allow near-global connectivity to become available to support and enhance UAV operations. SwiftBroadband service is provided by InmarSat Satellite broadband communications. BLOS is usually limited to military UAS operations. Civilian UAS operations do not need BLOS systems for the time being, as their missions are conducted within line of sight range. Civilian operations have access to BLOS via the Iridium satellite system, which is owned and operated by Iridium LLC.

The FAA through its "Partnership for Safety Plan (PSP)" program continue its efforts to team with the industry to help them with the UAS integration. The following organizations were among the entities that FAA is working with to test and try the BVLOS and many of the other UAS integration issues:

1.  Amazon Prime A

2. Burlington Northern Santa Fe (BNSF) Railway

3. Drone Racing League (DRL)

4. Florida Power and Light

5. UPS Flight Forward Inc.

6. Wing (an Alphabet company)

7. Xcel Energy

For more information on the PSP, visit this FAA website [17].

The FAA in mid-June, 2021 announced that they are forming a new Aviation Rulemaking Committee, or ARC, to provide recommendations to help the agency develop a regulatory path for routine Beyond Visual Line of Sight drone flights. The committee considers the safety, security and environmental needs, as well as societal benefits, of these operations. 

Personnel Qualifications

Unmanned aerial system operators of remote pilots, visual observers, mission planners, and other support staff are responsible to:

• plan and analyze flight missions;
• perform preflight, in-flight and post-flight checks and procedures;
• conduct air reconnaissance, surveillance and acquisition missions;
• launch and recover the air frame from the runway or any other suitable sites or mechanisms;
• perform maintenance on communications equipment and power sources.

According to FAA PART 107, the job descriptions for the following jobs are specified:

1. the remote pilot in command (RPIC)
2. the person manipulating the flight controls of the small unmanned aircraft system
3. the visual observer

According to the FAA, the following operational restrictions apply to all UAS pilots:

• One RPIC must be designated at all times.
• The RPIC will be required to obtain a remote pilot certificate with a small UAS rating.
• The RPIC will have the final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of a small UAS operation conducted under part 107.
• RPIC must not perform crew duties for more than one UAS at a time.
• Only one RPIC per aircraft is authorized, and the RPIC must be in a position to assume control of the aircraft.
• In case of an in-flight emergency, the RPIC will be permitted to deviate from any rule of part 107 to the extent necessary to meet that emergency.
• The RPIC (who is a certificated airman) can supervise another person’s manipulation of a small UAS’s flight controls. A person who receives this type of supervision from the remote pilot in command is not required to obtain a remote pilot certificate to manipulate the controls of a small UAS as long as the remote pilot in command possesses the ability to immediately take direct control of the small unmanned aircraft.

As for the visual observer job, the FAA requires:

• A visual observer is a person who assists the remote pilot in command and the person manipulating the flight controls of the small UAS (if that person is not the remote pilot in command) to see and avoid other air traffic or objects aloft or on the ground.
• The visual observer is an optional crew member who will not be required to obtain an airman certificate.
• No Airman Certification or Required Training of Visual Observer.
• If used, observers are considered crew members.
• If used, observers must not perform crew duties for more than one UAS at a time.
• Observers are not allowed to perform concurrent duties both as UAS pilot and observer.
• For more details on the qualifications of each of the above-mentioned jobs, refer to section 16 of the FAA UAS Operational Approval policy N 8900.227 document.

As for the crew in general:

• The remote pilot in command, the person manipulating the flight controls of the small UAS (if that person is not the remote pilot in command), and the visual observer are to maintain effective communication.
• The remote pilot in command determines how that communication will take place.
• Such communications can be accomplished at a distance through technological assistance.
• The remote pilot in command, the person manipulating the flight controls of the small UAS, and the visual observer must always have visual-line-of-sight capability even if they do not exercise it.

Several agencies started providing training and issuing a UAS operator certification to support newcomers to the UAS business, such as the one in the following links:

• UAS Training Vendor 1: RPAS Training and Solutions [18]
• UAS Training Vendor 2: Unmanned Vehicle University [19]
• UAS Training Vendor 3: Drone Pilot Ground School [20] 

Summary

Congratulations! You've finished Lesson 5, Fundamentals of Unmanned Aerial System Operations. You should find by now that you are comfortable with describing different UAS classes, listing UAS system elements, designing a concept of operating a UAS, assessing risk surrounding a UAS operation, understanding FAA regulations, defining the operation criteria for different classes of the national airspace, and understanding the guidelines for UAS flight operations. If you feel that you are not comfortable with any of the previously listed subjects, then you need to review the lessons notes and/or contact me.

Final Tasks