Study Guide: Final Exam

Prioritize...Lesson 1

From Lesson 1, you should be able to:

define meteorology, and identify common applications of meteorology
discuss the composition of the atmosphere, including identifying which gases are most and least abundant, and which gases have permanent versus variable (changing) concentrations
convert between universal time (aka UTC, GMT, or Z-time) and local time zones within the United States (see "Key Skill" and "Quiz Yourself" tools for practice)
discuss temperature, dew point, visibility and their units of measurement, as well as identify and interpret temperature, dew point, visibility, and present weather (obstructions to visibility) on a station model (see "Key Skill" tool for practice)
discuss sky coverage (fraction of cloud cover) and interpret it on a station model, apply the standard convention for expressing wind direction in meteorology, as well as interpret wind direction on a station model, and interpret wind speed on a station model (see "Key Skill" and"Quiz Yourself" tools for practice).
describe and interpret simple statistical measures of weather and climate information (specifically, "normal," mean (average), extremes (records), the climate period of record, and range)
identify / discuss map features such as latitude lines, longitude lines (meridians), and projections. You should also be able to orient yourself polar stereographic and mercator projections (see "Key Skill" and "Quiz Yourself" tools for practice).
discuss what isopleths are, and you should be able to apply the idea of isoplething to an elevation contour map (a topographic map)
name the isopleths for temperature ("isotherms") and pressure ("isobars"). You should also be able to estimate a value at a point on a contour map of temperature or pressure (or any variable, for that matter). See "Key Skill" and "Quiz Yourself" tools for practice
discuss gradients and why they're important to meteorologists, as well as identify / interpret relatively large and small gradients on contour maps (see "Key Skill" tool for practice)

Prioritize...Lesson 2

From Lesson 2, you should be able to:

define radiation, wavelength, and micron. You should also be able to discuss the organization of radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum by wavelength (you should know which types of radiation have longer wavelengths and which have shorter wavelengths, for example)
describe the relationships governed by the "Four Laws of Radiation." You should also be able to solve observational "problems" using the relationship between an object's temperature, total emission, and peak emission wavelength as described by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law and Wien's Law
describe transmission, absorption, and scattering as they pertain to electromagnetic radiation passing through a medium. You should also be able to define albedo and be able to discuss earth's average albedo and that of various surfaces
discuss the concept of an energy budget and its impacts for temperature. You should also be able to discuss downwelling radiation and its sources, and be able to infer sky coverage (clear versus cloudy) and basic events from radiation plots (such as sunrise / sunset times, and major changes in sky coverage)
discuss upwelling infrared radiation, and what controls its magnitude. You should also be able to complete an energy budget calculation as shown and assess whether temperature would increase, decrease, or stay the same based on the result of the calculation (see the "Quiz Yourself" tool for practice)
discuss the so-called "greenhouse effect," and the "greenhouse gases" that contribute to it, as well as its importance for life on Earth. You should also be able to describe the connection between the greenhouse effect and global warming and make a distinction between the two
describe how energy is transferred via conduction, as well as discuss the speed of the process and where in the atmosphere it's most relevant. You should also be able to discuss the term thermal conductivity, and discuss the role of conduction in creating nocturnal inversions
describe energy transfer via convection, as well as discuss ways to generate convection such as buoyancy and mechanical eddies
apply your knowledge of energy transfer (particularly via radiation and convection) to explain why clouds do not act like blankets to keep nights warmer

Prioritize...Lesson 3

From Lesson 3, you should be able to:

discuss how the earth's tilt on its axis of rotation impacts sun angle throughout the year, and how seasons result from the changing angle at which the sun strikes the earth. You should also be able to explain how "meteorological seasons" differ from astronomical seasons
describe and explain the effects of latitude and proximity to large bodies of water seasonal temperature variations
describe and explain the effects of altitude on a location's average yearly temperatures. You should also be able to apply terms associated with vertical temperature variations, such as lapse rate, environmental lapse rate, and tropopause
explain air mass formation, name and describe the types of air masses, as well as discuss their source regions. You should also be able to define and describe "fronts" and describe the placement of fronts on weather maps
define cold, warm, and stationary fronts, and identify them by their symbols. You should also be able to describe temperature trends associated with the passage of cold and warm fronts
discuss temperature advection and its proper units, discuss its impacts on temperature trends, and perform simple temperature predictions based on a given temperature and value of temperature advection (see "Key Skill" tool for practice)
describe how clouds and water vapor affect temperatures and diurnal (daily) temperature ranges
describe how falling precipitation and the presence of snow cover affect temperature. You should also be able to discuss the effects of urbanization on temperature (the "urban heat-island effect")
describe proper thermometer placement to ensure accurate temperature measurements, as well as discuss reasons why common "air" temperature readings on bank thermometers, car thermometers, and "on the field" at sporting events may be inaccurate

Prioritize...Lesson 4

From Lesson 4, you should be able to:

discuss the main components of the hydrologic cycle, especially the main mechanisms by which water enters and exists the atmosphere. You should also be able to define evaporation, condensation, transpiration, and sublimation
describe the processes of evaporation and condensation, as well as how/why these processes impact temperature. In particular, you should be able to explain temperature and dew point changes that often occur with falling precipitation
discuss the controllers of evaporation rates and condensation rates. You should also be able to define and discuss relative humidity in terms of evaporation rates and condensation rates, and discuss the state of equilibrium
discuss why the idea that warm air holds more water vapor than cold air is a fallacy, and discuss how water drops grow in terms of condensation rates and evaporation rates
discuss the basic recipe for making clouds. In particular, you should be able to discuss why condensation nuclei (aerosols) and lifting the air are critical parts of the recipe, as well as define the term hygroscopic
describe the formation of clouds via orographic lifting, describe fog formation, and describe the formation of mixing clouds such as contrails
define and interpret dew point temperature in terms of condensation rates and measuring the amount of water vapor present, and use it as a general guide for human comfort. You should also be able to discuss the typical range of dew points observed at the surface of the earth and the types of air masses characterized by the highest and lowest dew points
define and interpret relative humidity as it relates to net condensation, describe the effects of increasing and decreasing temperature on relative humidity, and be able to define and discuss the lifting condensation level (LCL)

Prioritize...Lesson 5

From Lesson 5, you should be able to:

distinguish between in-situ and remote sensing measurements, and be able to give examples of each. You should also be able to determine whether a remote sensing instrument is active or passive
distinguish between geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites. You should also be able to describe their differences and roles in observing the earth, and be able to identify a satellite image as being collected by a geostationary satellite or a polar-orbiting satellite
name and describe the three basic cloud types (cirrus, stratus, and cumulus). You should also be able to describe the meaning of the prefixes cirro, alto, cumulo, and nimbo (and the suffix nimbus) in order to decipher common cloud names
describe how a satellite constructs an image in the visible spectrum, and describe how to discern the relative thickness of various clouds types on visible satellite imagery. In particular, you should be able to describe how very thick clouds (such as cumulonimbus) appear compared to very thin clouds (like cirrus)
describe what is displayed on infrared satellite imagery, and describe the connection between cloud-top temperature retrieved by satellite and cloud-top height. You should also be able to discuss the key assumption about vertical temperature variation in the atmosphere that meteorologists make when interpreting infrared imagery
describe and interpret what is displayed on water vapor imagery, describe what it's most commonly used for, and discuss its limitations (in other words, what it typically cannot show)
describe how a radar works and what portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that modern radars use. You should also be able to define the term "reflectivity" as well as its units. Furthermore, you should be able to explain how a radar locates a particular signal and describe concepts such as beam elevation and ground clutter
list and describe the three precipitation factors that affect radar reflectivity. You should also be able to discuss why snow tends to be under-measured by radar, and explain the difference between "base reflectivity" and "composite reflectivity"
discuss the Doppler effect, its use in radar data collection, and the benefits of Doppler radar data. You should also be able to discuss what is meant by dual polarization radar and discuss its advantages

NOTE: You may find the "Summary: Satellite and Radar Imagery" page at the end of the lesson to be helpful.

Prioritize...Lesson 6

From Lesson 6, you should be able to:

relate surface pressure to the weight of an air column above a point. You should also be able to express pressure with the proper units and discuss the typical range of sea-level pressure on Earth
discuss the change of atmospheric pressure with increasing height, the difference between "station pressure" and "sea-level pressure," analyze maps of isobars (contoured maps of pressure), and decode pressure from a station model (see "Key Skill" tool for practice)
describe the main force that creates the wind (the pressure-gradient force). You should also be able to identify the direction of the pressure-gradient force given a map of isobars, and qualitatively relate the strength of the pressure-gradient force to the speed of the wind
discuss the meaning of an "apparent force" and how apparent forces are created. You should also be able to discuss the Coriolis force, specifically what causes it, what determines its magnitude, what its effects are, and the time/space scales on which its effects are visible (and not visible)
describe the impacts of friction on wind speed, as well as describe the magnitude of the frictional force given a particular terrain
describe how the pressure-gradient force, the Coriolis force, and friction act to determine the wind direction and speed. You should be able to define the geostrophic wind, and be able to determine the geostrophic wind and surface wind directions given a map of sea-level pressures (see "Key Skill" tool for practice)
define convergence and divergence and discuss the impacts of convergence and divergence (at the surface and aloft) on vertical motion, surface pressure tendency, and general weather conditions
define the terms "ridge" and "trough" as they pertain to surface pressure. You should also be able to discuss the patterns of surface convergence and divergence, as well as the vertical motion and typical weather associated with surface troughs and ridges
discuss why fronts are located in troughs and discuss trends in sea-level pressure associated with a frontal passage

Prioritize...Lesson 7

From Lesson 7, you should be able to:

define the jet stream, describe the movement of weather systems in the middle latitudes, and describe the differences between a meridional pattern and a zonal pattern (as well as their consequences for mid-latitude cyclone development)
describe the general pattern of convergence and divergence within an air column located over steady-state, strengthening, and weakening high- and low-pressure systems. You should also be able to explain how (for example) a surface low pressure system deepens as a result of unequal magnitudes of convergence and divergence
discuss the ingredients needed for a mid-latitude cyclone to form and thrive. You should also be able to discuss the resulting temperature advections caused by a mid-latitude cyclone's circulation, define the warm sector, and discuss the conditions that bring about the demise of a mid-latitude cyclone
describe the structure of a cold front, explain what typically causes rising air near cold fronts, and describe the weather that often accompanies cold frontal passages (including temperature and dew point trends, clouds and precipitation, and winds). You should also be able to describe the difference between katafronts and anafronts
define warm fronts and stationary fronts and properly characterize them as anafronts. You should also be able to describe the process of overrunning and the resulting clouds and weather associated with these types of fronts
name the three conveyor belts associated with a mature mid-latitude cyclone. You should also be able to describe each conveyor belt and discuss its impacts on the mid-latitude cyclone (precipitation, appearance, etc.)
able to define freezing rain and sleet. You should also be able to describe the temperature profile in the lower atmosphere that causes the formation of each (in addition to the temperature profiles that cause snow and rain), as well as generally where each type of precipitation is common within the context of a winter mid-latitude cyclone
discuss the criteria needed for a true blizzard and be able to identify the recommended components for an emergency supply kit for a car. You should also be able to describe wind chill and identify the signs of hypothermia

Prioritize...Lesson 8

From Lesson 8, you should be able to:

define the term hydrostatic equilibrium (hydrostatic balance) and discuss the implications of hydrostatic equilibrium on vertical motions in the atmosphere. You should also be able to define buoyancy and the buoyancy force, as well as discuss under what conditions an object (like a parcel of air) is positively or negatively buoyant
explain the meaning of the terms unstable equilibrium, stable equilibrium, and neutrally stable with respect to parcels of air. You should also be able to compare the cooling rates of rising "dry" and "moist" air parcels to describe why "moist" air parcels have a better chance to remain positively buoyant
name and describe the clouds that form in an unstable atmosphere and the clouds that form in a stable atmosphere, including their observed characteristics. You should also be able to discern stratiform from convective precipitation on radar
discuss why fast convective updrafts are required for lightning formation. You should also be able to discuss the myth of "heat lightning," trends in lightning fatalities (who is most often struck and when the greatest risk for fatalities occurs with respect to a passing thunderstorm), and key safety tips for avoiding lightning strikes
identify favorable geographical locations for thunderstorms in the United States and worldwide, and discuss why coastlines and mountain ranges can be favorable regions for thunderstorms
describe the life cycle of a single-cell thunderstorm (including characteristics of the cumulus, mature, and dissipating stages). You should also be able to define the following terms -- updraft, entrainment, downdraft, gust front / outflow boundary, and anvil
define multicell and supercell thunderstorms, and contrast their features and characteristics of their environments with those of single-cell thunderstorms
describe lake-effect snow and snow squalls. In particular, you should be able to identify the basic recipe for lake-effect snow, describe the necessary "fetch," and describe the dangers posed by snow squalls

Prioritize...Lesson 9

From Lesson 9, you should be able to:

discuss the dangers associated with flash flooding, safety tips, and the general atmospheric conditions in which flash flooding occurs
define hail and describe the process by which hail forms. You should also be able to define graupel, severe hail, and precipitation loading
describe downbursts (including the difference between a microburst and a macroburst), and how precipitation loading and evaporational cooling can lead to their development. You should also be able to describe why downbursts are a hazard, and in particular explain why microbursts are a threat to aviation
describe the conditions under which a thunderstorm would be considered "severe," and be able to interpret the meaning of a severe thunderstorm watch, severe thunderstorm warning, tornado watch, and tornado warning
define squall lines, bow echoes, and derechos. In addition to formally defining each of these, you should be able to describe their basic structure and impacts. You should also be able to describe the type of cloud (a shelf cloud) that sometimes signals the arrival of a gust front
define tornadoes and funnel clouds, describe the tornado climatology in the United States (including geographic locations and monthly distribution), and describe where the rotation of a supercell and tornado comes from
describe the following parts of a supercell: forward-flank downdraft, rear-flank downdraft, updraft region, mesocyclone, and tornado (if applicable). You should also be able to describe the cloud formation (a wall cloud) that's often a precursor to a funnel cloud or tornado formation, and identify the location on radar reflectivity where a tornado might form in a classic supercell
describe the Enhanced Fujita Tornado Damage Scale (EF-Scale). You don't need to memorize the specifics of the scale itself, but you should be able to describe how it's used and distinguish between the weak and violent ratings. You should also be able to discuss the frequency of weak tornadoes versus violent tornadoes, safety tips for what to do when a tornado approaches (in various situations and structures), and tornado myths (regarding "exploding houses," intermittent damage, and avoidance of mountains and cities)
describe waterspouts and landspouts, dust devils, fire whirls, and gustnadoes, and discuss the dangers they pose

Prioritize...Lesson 10

From Lesson 10, you should be able to:

discuss the impacts of urbanization and deforestation on temperature, precipitation, albedo, and local hydrology (local evaporation, drainage and flooding issues in cities, etc.)
describe natural climate changes resulting from the sun, changes to Earth's orbit, ocean cycles, and volcanoes (and other geologic activity). Specifically, you should be able to discuss how each can warm and/or cool Earth and over what time scales the changes are noticeable
define anthropogenic and discuss anthropogenic contributions to climate change. Specifically, you should be able to identify anthropogenic greenhouse gases that are increasing in concentration, discuss their sources, and discuss the impacts of these increased concentrations. You should also be able to discuss anthropogenic sources of sulfur aerosols and the impacts of increased concentrations
discuss Earth's carbon cycle, including the primary reservoirs and anthropogenic transfer mechanisms. You need not remember specific transfer rates or reservoir "sizes", but you should be able to identify the largest reservoirs and transfer mechanisms, as well as describe the consequences of the unbalanced, anthropogenic portions of the carbon cycle
describe different datasets used to assess Earth's temperature (namely paleoclimate proxies, the modern surface temperature record, and satellite temperature data) along with their limitations, and explain why Earth's temperature doesn't steadily increase each year, even with the anthropogenic strengthening of the greenhouse effect. You should also be able to discuss the dangers of using "cherry-picked" data, and explain why all locations on the planet are not warming equally
describe trends in ocean temperature, ocean acidification, global ice coverage, and sea level. You should also be able to define ice sheets and sea ice, discuss their respective contributions to sea-level rise, and discuss the consequences of sea-level rise
describe consequences of global warming on temperature extremes and atmospheric moisture. You should also be able to discuss which connections between global warming and extreme weather have higher confidence, and which have lower confidence (and why)
define general circulation models, discuss how their use in predictions is different than computer models created for weather forecasting, and discuss future temperature projections
describe the effects of the stratospheric ozone layer, and ozone that forms low in the troposphere from air pollutants. You should also be able to name the class of human-made chemicals that destroys ozone and contributes to "greenhouse" warming, define the ozone hole and its location, and describe the actions that were taken to limit the depletion of ozone

Prioritize...Lesson 11

From Lesson 11, you should be able to:

identify the meteorological region referred to as the tropics, be able to give context for its size (in relation to the entire earth), contrast typical temperature and pressure patterns in the tropics with those in the mid-latitudes, and discuss why the tropics are important energetically to the general circulation
define Earth's "general circulation," and be able to discuss the Hadley circulation in the tropics, specifically the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the hot towers that form along it
discuss seasonal variations in the position of the ITCZ and their consequences for local weather and climate (precipitation, in particular). You should also be able to define thermal equator and doldrums
discuss the cause of the belt of subtropical highs, and be able to describe their formation, strength, and seasonal changes based on column-weight issues. You should also be able to discuss the dominant vertical motion in the belt of subtropical highs and its implications for local weather and climate
discuss the formation and average location of the subtropical jet stream (STJ), its seasonal variations in intensity, and its impacts on mid-latitude weather
explain the formation of the trade winds, identify the typical direction from which they blow in each hemisphere, and discuss their role in moisture transport and cloud / precipitation formation
properly define monsoon and discuss the causes of the Indian and Southeast Asian Monsoons, as well as the resulting weather. You should also be able to compare the size of the wind shifts associated with the Indian Monsoon and the North American Monsoon, as well as define monsoon depressions and discuss the weather associated with them
discuss the changes in ocean temperatures in the equatorial Pacific Ocean associated with El Niño and La Niña, define "anomaly," and connect the development of El Niño and La Niña to changes in the trade winds
discuss the local, regional, and global effects (via teleconnections) of El Niño and La Niña, including changes to the Walker Circulation and patterns of precipitation over the equatorial Pacific, and changes to the subtropical jet stream. However, you need not memorize specific global teleconnections for any particular season or area

Prioritize...Lesson 12

From Lesson 12, you should be able to:

discuss classification schemes for tropical cyclones, including associating the proper criteria and thresholds for the terms hurricane, tropical storm, tropical depression, typhoon, and super typhoon. You should also able to describe the Saffir-Simpson scale and define the term subtropical cyclone
describe where tropical cyclones do (and don't) form globally, and the primary reason why. You should also be able to identify the most active tropical basins and describe the "seasons" (when tropical cyclones are most likely to form) in the North Atlantic, Northeast Pacific, and Northwest Pacific Basins
describe how tropical cyclones are named in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific Basins, and use a storm's name to draw conclusions about how many named storms have occurred in a given season
identify and discuss how and why sea-surface temperatures, a location at least five degrees latitude away from the equator, and a pre-existing disturbance with favorable low-level spin and convergence are important for tropical cyclone formation and / or maintenance. Furthermore, you should be able to identify common sources of seedling tropical disturbances that can develop into tropical cyclones
describe the eye and eye wall of a tropical cyclone (including how the eye forms). You should also be able to identify and explain the importance of weak vertical wind shear, a moist middle troposphere, and a neutrally stable or unstable troposphere for tropical cyclone development and / or maintenance
describe the process by which a tropical cyclone intensifies, including the air flow through a tropical cyclone (known as the "secondary circulation"). You should also be able to describe why tropical cyclones weaken over land, and define "stadium effect"
describe the main steering factors for tropical cyclones, including the role of subtropical highs. You should also be able to interpret the tropical cyclone "forecast cone of uncertainty" from the National Hurricane Center
discuss the wind-related hazards (in the eye wall and spiral bands) and water-related hazards (storm surge and inland flooding) associated with tropical cyclones. You should also be able to identify which areas of a tropical cyclone are most prone to specific hazards
describe strengths and limitations of the Saffir-Simpson Scale, and be able to discuss why the Saffir-Simpson Scale is sometimes not an adequate descriptor of a hurricane's destructive potential