In the context of sustainability, "commons" refers to natural resources or spaces that are accessible to all members of a community or society, often without individual ownership. These resources are collectively managed and used for the benefit of the entire community. The concept of the commons is rooted in the idea that certain resources, such as air, water, forests, and fisheries, should be preserved and maintained for future generations through shared stewardship and sustainable practices. Figure 3.1 provides examples of the commons. You are encouraged to look at these specific locations and investigate what parties/stakeholders may use these natural resources and for what purposes.
Other examples of common resources that have been impacted in the past are air, water (groundwater, oceans, lakes, rivers), coastlines, land, soil, minerals, plants and animals.
The key principles of managing the common resources sustainably include:
- Collective Management: The resources are managed by the community as a whole rather than by individual private owners or the government alone.
- Sustainable Use: Ensuring that the use of the resources does not exceed their capacity for regeneration and long-term viability.
- Equitable Access: Providing fair and equitable access to the resources for all community members.
- Community Participation: Involving local communities in decision-making processes related to the management and use of the commons.
- Adaptability: Implementing flexible management practices that can adapt to changing environmental and social conditions.
The "tragedy of the commons" is a concept in environmental science that explains how individual users, acting independently according to their own self-interest, can deplete or spoil shared resources, even though it is against everyone's long-term interests. This idea was popularized by ecologist Garrett Hardin in his 1968 essay of the same name, though the concept itself has historical precedents in discussions about shared resources. They were called commons because the community shared the space. However, if one person grazed too many sheep, it would ruin the common area for everyone else. This would create a tragedy where the entire community could no longer use the space for grazing. Hardin extended this idea to natural resources, warning that without management, they could be overexploited, leading to scarcity and destruction. Effective management is crucial to maintain these resources for society.
The video titled "What is the Tragedy of the Commons?" (04:57) by Nicholas Amendolare discusses historical examples, the theory behind it, and potential solutions to manage common resources sustainably. After watching this video, ask yourself:
- What are some ways to prevent the tragedy of the commons? Which do you think is the most effective and why?
- Do you think the tragedy of the commons is inevitable, or can human behavior adapt to manage shared resources better?
- Have you ever experienced a situation where the tragedy of the commons occurred in your community or school? How was it handled?
Imagine as a thought experiment that you live in a small village and depend on the local fish pond for food. You share the pond with three other villagers. The pond starts off with a dozen fish, and the fish reproduce. For every two fish, there will be one baby added each night. So, in order to maximize your supply of food, how many fish should you catch each day? Take a moment to think about it. Assume baby fish grow to full size immediately and that the pond begins at full capacity, and ignore factors like the sex of the fish you catch. The answer? One, and it's not just you. The best way to maximize every villager's food supply is for each fisherman to take just one fish each day. Here's how the math works. If each villager takes one fish, there will be eight fish left over night. Each pair of fish produces one baby, and the next day, the pond will be fully restocked with twelve fish. If anyone takes more than one, the number of reproductive pairs drops, and the population won't be able to bounce back. Eventually, the fish in the lake will be gone, leaving all four villagers to starve.
This fish pond is just one example of a classic problem called the tragedy of the commons. The phenomenon was first described in a pamphlet by economist William Forster Lloyd in 1833 in a discussion of the overgrazing of cattle on village common areas. More than 100 years later, ecologist Garrett Hardin revived the concept to describe what happens when many individuals all share a limited resource, like grazing land, fishing areas, living space, even clean air. Hardin argued that these situations pit short-term self-interest against the common good, and they end badly for everyone, resulting in overgrazing, overfishing, overpopulation, pollution, and other social and environmental problems.
The key feature of a tragedy of the commons is that it provides an opportunity for an individual to benefit him or herself while spreading out any negative effects across the larger population. To see what that means, let's revisit our fish pond.
Each individual fisherman is motivated to take as many fish as he can for himself. Meanwhile, any decline in fish reproduction is shared by the entire village. Anxious to avoid losing out to his neighbors, a fisherman will conclude that it's in his best interest to take an extra fish, or two, or three. Unfortunately, this is the same conclusion reached by the other fisherman, and that's the tragedy. Optimizing for the self in the short term isn't optimal for anyone in the long term. That's a simplified example, but the tragedy of the commons plays out in the more complex systems of real life, too. The overuse of antibiotics has led to short-term gains in livestock production and in treating common illnesses, but it's also resulted in the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which threaten the entire population. A coal-fired power plant produces cheap electricity for its customers and profits for its owners. These local benefits are helpful in the short term, but pollution from mining and burning coal is spread across the entire atmosphere and sticks around for thousands of years. There are other examples, too. Littering, water shortages, deforestation, traffic jams, even the purchase of bottled water.
But human civilization has proven it's capable of doing something remarkable. We form social contracts, we make communal agreements, we elect governments, and we pass laws. All this to save our collective selves from our own individual impulses. It isn't easy, and we certainly don't get it right nearly all of the time. But humans at our best have shown that we can solve these problems and we can continue to do so if we remember Hardin's lesson. When the tragedy of the commons applies, what's good for all of us is good for each of us.
A few examples of how the Commons deteriorate:
- Atmosphere often becomes a sink for chemicals. Among other negative effects, this results in global warming, ozone loss, acid rain, and urban smog.
- Oceans are a sink for pollutants such as agricultural and industrial run-off. In addition, fishery depletion affects ecologic equilibrium.
- Rapid extraction of lumber, minerals, and clear-cutting for agricultural and urbanization purposes has resulted in extensive rainforest deforestation, which in turn results in decreased biodiversity and global climate change.
In relation to environmental sustainability, the tragedy of the commons demonstrates the challenges of managing resources that no single individual owns or has complete control over, such as the atmosphere, oceans, and public lands. Without regulation or agreements to moderate use, these resources can be overexploited, leading to environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, and depletion of resources critical to human survival.
This concept underscores the importance of collective action, regulatory frameworks, and sustainable management practices to ensure that shared resources are used in a manner that is equitable and sustainable for future generations. It calls attention to the need for collaboration between individuals, communities, governments, and organizations to implement policies and practices that balance individual needs with the health of the environment.
As an example of the policies and practices, the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) has ordered the Northern Iron foundry in St. Paul's Payne-Phalen neighborhood to reduce its lead and particulate matter emissions within 30 days, following new data indicating high pollution levels. Previously fined $41,500 for not reporting equipment changes, the foundry must now comply with national air quality standards by May 16. The MPCA has installed air monitors and will hold a community meeting in May to address concerns in the predominantly low-income, diverse neighborhood.
Technological advancements and innovations can help monitor and sustainably manage natural resources For example, satellite surveillance of forests provides real-time, comprehensive data on forest health, deforestation, illegal logging, and land-use changes. This technology enables better monitoring and management of forest resources by offering precise and timely information, which helps in enforcing regulations, planning sustainable land use, and raising awareness about conservation needs. By making this information accessible to governments, communities, and organizations, satellite surveillance promotes transparency and accountability, ensuring forests are managed sustainably for the benefit of all.